Komagata Maru – reflections on immigration policy (Part 3)

The Komagata Maru incident highlights one of the most discriminatory laws in Canadian history. Yet, society has changed in the past century since the ship came to Vancouver. Immigration today is diverse, with immigrants coming from around the world. In the past three decades, immigration has shifted from a Eurocentric to a pan-Asian focus. This is a reflection of changes in the world economy and the structures of government. Aging populations in the so-called developed world, with extensive social support for their residents, no longer seek migration as much as a means to improve their quality of life.

While Canada has changed in the past century, immigration policy has not changed in many ways. Part of the underlying conflict that gave rise to the continuous journey rule was labour competition. Employers sought cheaper labour for various industries, which was filled with immigrants from China, Japan and India. Local unions complained about the loss of work for existing workers. The same conflict has been playing out in the past eight years with the increasing use of the temporary foreign worker program, to allow employers to hire foreign workers. Labour groups complain about wage stagnation, as employers can maintain lower wages due to an accessible pool of workers willing to work at lower rates.

A century ago immigrants coming to Canada faced a relatively quick and cursory examination at a port of entry for admission to permanently live here. There was no prescreening by way of obtaining a permanent resident visa before travelling to Canada. Immigrants did not provide criminal record checks nor were checked for security reasons. There were no forms to fill out. A quick medical examination at the port of entry determined if persons were “mentally defective,” diseased or “physically defective;” making the persons prohibited from entering Canada.

Under other powers, rules were passed to require immigrants to possess certain amounts of money and to restrict immigrants of specified classes, occupations or character.  The government set a higher amount of money required for Asian immigrants. When the Komagata Maru landed, an additional rule has been passed to prohibit the landing of skilled or unskilled labourers through British Columbia ports.

Similar rules continue to exist under current immigration law. Selection rules are inherently discriminatory. Since 1966, in one form or another, selection criteria has included occupational and educational factors. The list of qualified occupations has changed numerous times since then, depending on current economic needs. The foreign skilled worker program is limited to applicants in 24 specific occupations, or those with approved arranged employed or Canadian PhD graduates.

Modern selection rules have generally required an applicant to have the ability to communicate in English or French. The rule is relatively more discriminatory against nationals from non-English and French-speaking countries. These requirements are fundamentally no different than the attempts by the BC government to pass immigration rules in 1908 that imposed an educational test, which was used to prevent the immigration of some Indian immigrants arriving on the SS Monteagle.

Financial requiremens are still imposed on some classes of immigrants. Federal skilled worker applicants must have in their possession unencumbered funds amounting to half the minimum income needed for the applicant and their family members. For a single applicant that amounts to about $12,000, about 60 times the amount required by an Asian immigrant in 1914. This inherently discriminates against a larger percentage of the populations in certain countries whose average family incomes are lower. Similar requirements are imposed under some BC provincial nominees.

The continuous journey rule was inherently discriminatory as it was used specifically to prevent migration from India. It could have been used to prevent migration from many other countries that did not have direct transportation connections with Canada.. Since 1966, Canada has created immigration policy tied to the economic interests of the country. Selection criteria has adapted to changing economic needs, to attract immigrants who are able to become economically established. The current government has tightened rules to further limit migration of family members and other classes, who are not specifically judged on their ability to become economically established.

Overt discrimination expressly based on race, nationality, ethnicity or religion no longer exists under the immigration laws. However, selection rules still create inherent discrimination against certain nationalities, whose citizens do not generally meet the selection criteria. That discrimination is tolerated, as educational, occupation and linguistic abilities are not an extrinsic part of one’s race or ethnicity. Most persons have the potential to improve their education, or gain an occupation or language skill. I expect Canada will continue to apply immigration selection criteria achieve its economic goals; to attract immigrants who will contribute to the economy and help maintain the social support structure that has developed in the past 70 years.

William Macintosh started practising as an immigration lawyer in 1984. You can reach him for advice or help on any immigration or citizenship matter at 778-714-8787 or by e-mail at macintoshlaw@gmail.com.

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Komagata Maru – reflections on immigration policy (Part 2)

There was no attempt for several years to challenge the continuous journey rule put into effect after the success of the SS Monteagle case. Shipping companies like the CPR eliminated direct passages and through ticketing from India, though a handful of lucky migrants were able to obtain through ticketing. When a new Immigration Act was passed by Parliament in 1910, the government reenacted the same continuous journey restriction and the $200 cash requirement for Asiatic migrants.

During that time the west coast of North America became a gathering place for various Indian nationalists, whose goal was Indian independence from British colonial rule. Their presence raised concern in Delhi. It also attracted a former Anglo-Indian police officer from Kolkata, William Hopkinson, who came toVancouver in 1908. He would become a central player in the events of 1914 involving the Komagata Maru. In early 1909 he became an immigration officer. He also became a Dominion Police officer and he send regular intelligence reports to London and Delhi on the activities of Indian nationalists.

Mr. Hopkinson created a network of informants in Canada and the United States to keep tabs on the political activists. Efforts were made to discourage their activities. In early 1910 a Gujrati cotton merchant, Husain Rahim, came to Vancouver. When told of the continuous journey rule, he convinced the immigration officials to let him enter as a tourist. He stayed on. When he made himself known to officials later that year, he was ordered deported. He also attracted Mr. Hopkinson’s attention, when he was found in possession of a list of activists.

Mr. Rahim twice challenged the deportation order. In early 1911 the BC Supreme Court found that the government had no authority to order his deportation because he had changed his mind to stay in Canada. A second deportation order in late 1911 was also defeated. The court held that new rules to remove tourists who remained in Canada under the 1910 Immigration Act did not apply to Rahim as he entered prior to their coming into effect. The court also suggested that the continuous journey  and $200 requirement rules were invalid. The latter comments received no public notice. It was two years before the court’s comments were given life.

In October, 1913, the SS Panama Maru docked in Victoria. Among the passengers were 56 Indian nationals, the largest number of Indian nationals attempting to enter Canada since 1908. Some were allowed to reenter as returning residents. The rest were ordered deported under the continuous journey regulation. The group challenged the orders. On Nov. 24, 2013, Justice Hunter ruled the restrictive orders invalid on the ground that they were not written according to the terms used in the Immigration Act, as decided in the Rahim case.

Following the victory, residents wrote to family and friends to come to Canada while the door was open. The Borden government quickly shut the door, passing new rules in early January, 1914, that complied with the court’s judgment.

However, a wealthy Sikh contractor from Malaya, Gurdit Singh Sirhali, took up the challenge of testing the restrctive rules. During spring 1914 he chartered a Japanese-owned ship, the Komagata Maru, to carry several hundred Indian passengers to Canada. The ship set sail from Hong Kong in early April, travelling to China and Japan, collecting more passengers, before making its way across the Pacific to arrive in Vancouver on May 23.

The ship remained anchored in Burrrard Inlet for almost two months; its passengers kept as virtual prisoners on the ship. Of the 375 passengers on board, about 20 were allowed off as returning residents. The rest were denied entry under the continuous journey rule, the $200 requirement rule and under a new rule passed on March 31, that prohibited the landing of skilled or unskilled labourers.

After debate and negotiation, it was agreed to have the deportation order of one passenger, Munshi Singh Gulpur, put forward as a test case. A habeas corpus application was summarily rejected in order to allow for an appeal to the BC Court of Appeal. The appeal was heard in Victoria in late June. The court rendered its judgement on July 6, upholding the deportation. The court found the 1914 rules validly enacted under the Immigration Act. It upheld Parliament’s power to enact immigration rules that could prohibit British subjects, including those born in the United Kingdom, and to discriminate between different classes of subjects.

Subsequent events quickly overshadowed the Komagata Maru. Within a month Canada was at war. The continuous journey rule continued to remain in effect for more than 30 years. Limited migration from South Asia was allowed in the early 1950s. Restrictions based on nationality were eliminated in 1962. Immigration law is inherently discriminatory as it sets rules for the selection of immigrants and workers. In the next part, I will look at the events of a century ago and show what has changed and what policies have not changed.

William Macintosh started practising as an immigration lawyer in 1984. You can reach him for advice or help on any immigration or citizenship matter at 778-714-8787 or by e-mail at macintoshlaw@gmail.com.

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Komagata Maru – reflections on immigration policy

May 23 will be the 100th anniversary of the arrival of the  Komagata Maru in Vancouver. Its arrival and the efforts of its passengers to remain in Canada were one of the most emotional events in Canadian immigration history. In the next few weeks leading up to  the anniversary, I will write about the incident and consider what changes have been made to Canadian immigration policy since then.

Humanity has been migrating through the ages. As populations levels increase, with more competition for limited resources,. people have moved to seek better opportunities. The same pressures motivate migration today. A global industrial economy creates demand for workers. Capitalism results in a desire by business to decrease labour costs. Governments attempt to balance competing interests.

Other human factors give rise to migration, such as religion, race and ethnicity, resulting in wars and other conflicts. There are many examples in recent centuries. To name only a few, land clearances in Scotland following a political uprising in the mid-18th century displaced tens of thousands of Scots. A million Irish migrated as a result of the famine of the 1840s. Partition of India in 1947 displaced about 14 million people.

In the past year complaints by unions and other workers about displacement by temporary foreign workers have filled the news. The government is creating an Express Entry program to assist business in quickly finding qualified permanent workers. All of this is playing out in a global economy hit by a recession since 2008, with fears that a slowdown in the Chinese economy will exaggerate the problems.

Similar headlines were written over a century ago. A global depression in 1907 created conflict in British Columbia, with unions demanding a prohibition against cheaper imported labour by businesses. Racial tension and prejudice arose as most of the imported labour was coming from China, Japan and India.

The B.C. legislature passed laws to restrict Asian immigration. Most of those laws were disallowed by the federal government, under a constitutional provision that still exists. Previously, B.C.'s Lieutenant Governor, James Dunsmuir, refused to give royal assent to one Act, after which he, as owner of major mining interests in B.C., signed a contract to import foreign miners. The federal government had started restricting Chinese immigration in 1885 by imposing a head tax on Chinese migrants. Despite increasing the fee twice by 1903, migration continued.

Businesses argued against restrictions. The Canadian Pacific Railway, which ran a Pacific steamship service, relied upon migration for that service. It had been promoting migration from India. Following race riots in Vancouver in September, 1907, the federal government reached an agreement with Japan to limit emigration to Canada. The government sought a way to limit Indian migration without overtly offending British Indian interests in controlling Indian nationalism.

A new Immigration Act was passed in 1906. The 1906 Act allowed the government more flexibility in controlling migration. In January, 1908, the government enacted a regulation that, where in the opinion of the Interior Minister the condition of the labour market made it desirable, immigrants would be prohibited from landing or coming into Canada unless they came from the country of their birth, or citizenship, by a continuous journey and on through tickets purchased before leaving the country of their birth, or citizenship. It also passed a rule to prevent migration of unemployed poor from Britain.

The CPR challenged the regulation as it effectively eliminated migration from India. One of its ships, the SS Monteagle, arrived in Victoria in March, 1908, with 183 Indian immigrants. The migrants were first subject to an education test under a B.C. Immigration Act. About 31 failed the test, resulting in an order for their imprisonment. On March 13 B.C. Supreme Court Justice Morrison set aside the convictions, by finding the B.C. law unlawful, as it was contrary to the paramount federal Immigration Act.

Under the federal Immigration Act, twenty five were excluded on medical grounds, the rest under the continuous journey order. The CPR contested the exclusions, with the lead applicant named Behari Lal. On March 24, Justice Clement ruled the order invalid, as the Immigration Act did not give power to the government to delegate authority to the Interior Minister to determine prohibited classes.

Within three days the government passed a new continuous journey order, without reference to the Interior Minister. It also introduced an amendment to the Immigration Act to expressly authorize a continuous journey regulation, that was assented into law on April 10. It rewrote the continuous journey order again in May. In June the government passed another rule requiring “Asiatic immigrants” to possess $200, creating a further barrier against Indian migration.

The CPR made no further attempt to challenge the exclusionary rules. It succumbed to pressure and eliminated any direct passage or through ticketing from India. The government set up entry points along the U.S. border in 1908 to control inland movement. Increasing migration prompted the government to introduce a new Immigration Act that was approved by Parliament in May, 1910. The 1910 Act would remain in effect until 1953. Within a week, cabinet reenacted the continuous journey and $200 fee requirement rules under the new Act.

The stage was set for further challenges to the law. Those would come from an Indian political activist in 1911, the arrival of another ship with Indian migrants at Victoria in October, 1913, and with the Komagata Maru's arrival. They will be dealt with in next weeks installment.

William Macintosh started practising as an immigration lawyer in 1984. You can reach him for advice or help on any immigration or citizenship matter at 778-714-8787 or by e-mail at macintoshlaw@gmail.com.

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Government continues juggling with temporary workers

The political conflict over the temporary foreign worker program came to a head this past week with the announcement by Employment Minister Jason Kenney last Thursday that the government was suspending the issuance of labour market opinions related to the food services sector. Under the moratorium Employment and Social Development Canada (ESDC) will not process any new or pending labour market opinion applications for that sector. Labour market opinions, known as LMOs, are decisions by ESDC that an employer has given a genuine job offer and that hiring a foreign worker would have a neutral or positive effect on the labour market opinion in Canada.

Critics have complained about the temporary foreign worker program for years. The program is purportedly intended as a last resort for employers to find workers when they have been unable to find qualified workers in Canada. In the past decade, and particularly under the present government, the foreign worker program has greatly expanded. There are currently about 338,000 temporary foreign workers in Canada, compared with about 110,000 ten years ago.

In justifying the moratorium, Minister Kenny said it was made in response to serious allegations of abuse by employers that ESDC had been made aware of recently. It also followed the release of a report by the C.D. Howe Institute that the increase in temporary foreign workers had led to higher joblessness in B.C. and Alberta, particularly among young workers. The Minister’s response reminds me of the character Captain Renault in the movie classic, Casablanca. When asked why he was shutting down Rick’s cafe, he disingenuously exclaimed, “I'm shocked, shocked to find that gambling is going on in here!,” as a worker from the cafe’s casino hands him money.

For years Minister Kenny has been leading the efforts of the government in cultivating its name among various community groups. The temporary foreign worker program has had a significant impact on both the Filipino and South Asian communities, as they are the major source countries for temporary foreign workers. The program has been a boon for many small business owners, as well as large corporations. The critics have warned of abuses with the program for several years.

Instead of increasing wages to attract local workers for lower skilled jobs, businesses have been able to hire foreign workers, keeping wage rates lower.  In the case of higher-skilled jobs, easier access to foreign workers has taken the incentive away from retraining Canadian workers to fill job positions; even though part of the LMO process involves an assessment of whether the employer has made or will make reasonable efforts to hire or train Canadians and permanent residents.

Over a year ago two local unions challenged a decision to grant LMOs to HD Mining to hire several hundred foreign miners to work at its northeast BC coal mine. The company won the case. Part of its proposal was that it would eventually train Canadian miners to do long-wall mining, a technique used only in a few mines in Canada. A year has passed and it is reported that the company has yet to start training the different technique to Canadian miners.

There are many political issues at play with the temporary foreign worker program. How much money should the government spend on retraining Canadians and permanent residents? How much should businesses be responsible for retraining and reeducation? Will Canada lose an economic competitive edge with other countries that use temporary workers? Do benefits such as employment insurance and social assistance create a disincentive for Canadians to relocate to find work? How much should the government spend to police the program, to curtail abuses? Will recent restrictions on parental sponsorship reduce the pool of potential workers for lower-skilled jobs, such as food services?

The program effects the workers coming to Canada. Should they receive a right to acquire permanent residence regardless of the skills they provide to Canada? Some economic libertarians and social activists suggest an “open border” policy, allowing the marketplace to determine who gets to stay in Canada. Would that mean no restrictions on access to social benefits?

Despite the moratorium, the temporary foreign worker program is still open to employers in other work sectors. The government is toughening enforcement, as with most other areas of immigration and citizenship. Employers will continue to seek foreign workers as long as the wage savings outweigh the added administrative costs of hiring those workers. The proposed Express Entry program starting in 2015 will make it easier for employers to acquire higher-skilled workers, but won’t help with the lower-skilled worker market. Politicians will continue to change the program, hoping to bolster their standing amongst potential voters in various communities for the next election in 2015, making it harder for some businesses to plan.

William Macintosh started practising as an immigration lawyer in 1984. You can reach him for advice or help on any immigration or citizenship matter at 778-714-8787 or by e-mail at macintoshlaw@gmail.com.

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